References & Image Credits

References

Baggett, L.P., Powers, S.P., Brumbaugh, R.D., Coen, L.D., DeAngelis, B.M., Greene, J.K. & zu Ermgassen, P.S., 2015. Guidelines for evaluating performance of oyster habitat restoration. Restoration Ecology, 23(6), pp.737–745.

Beck, M.W., Brumbaugh, R.D., Airoldi, L., Carranza, A., Coen, L.D., Crawford, C., Defeo, O., Edgar, G.J., Hancock, B., Kay, M.C., Lenihan, H.S., Luckenbach, M.W., Toropova, C.L., Zhang, G. & Guo, X., 2011. Oyster reefs at risk and recommendations for conservation, restoration, and management. BioScience, 61(2), pp.107–116.

Breitburg, D.L., 1999. Are three-dimensional structure and healthy oyster populations the keys to an ecologically interesting and important fish community? In: M.W. Luckenbach, R. Mann & J.A. Wesson, eds. Oyster reef habitat restoration: a synopsis and synthesis of approaches. Gloucester Point: Virginia Institute of Marine Science Press, pp.239–250.

Branigan, S., Fitzsimons, J. & Gillies, C.L., 2020. Modern middens: Shell recycling for restoring an endangered marine ecosystem in Victoria, Australia. Ecological Management & Restoration, 21(3), pp.198–204.

Burke, R.D., 1986. Pheromones and the gregarious settlement of marine invertebrate larvae. Bulletin of Marine Science, 39(2), pp.323–331.

Cai, A., Leung, T. & Lee, F., 2017. Benefit–cost analysis on coastal structures design for climate change adaptation in Hong Kong. Coastal Engineering Journal, 59(02), 1740005.

Coen, L.D., Brumbaugh, R.D., Bushek, D., Grizzle, R., Luckenbach, M.W., Posey, M.H. & Tolley, S.G., 2007. Ecosystem services related to oyster restoration. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 341, pp.303–307.

Goelz, T., Vogt, B. & Hartley, T., 2020. Alternative substrates used for oyster reef restoration: a review. Journal of Shellfish Research, 39(1), pp.1–12.

Grabowski, J.H. & Peterson, C.H., 2007. Restoring oyster reefs to recover ecosystem services. In: K. Cuddington, J.E. Byers, W.G. Wilson & A. Hastings, eds. Ecosystem engineers: plants to protists. Burlington, MA: Academic Press, pp.281–298.

Grabowski, J.H., Brumbaugh, R.D., Conrad, R.F., Keeler, A.G., Opaluch, J.J., Peterson, C.H. & Smyth, A.R., 2012. Economic valuation of ecosystem services provided by oyster reefs. BioScience, 62(10), pp.900–909.

Harding, J.M. & Mann, R., 2001. Oyster reefs as fish habitat: opportunistic use of restored reefs by transient fishes. Journal of Shellfish Research, 20(3), p.951.

Henriques-Silva, T., Mesquita-Guimarães, J., Henriques, B., Silva, F.S. & Fredel, M.C., 2019. The potential use of oyster shell waste in new value-added by-products. Resources, 8(1), 13.

La Peyre, M.K., Humphries, A.T., Casas, S.M. & La Peyre, J.F., 2014. Temporal variation in development of ecosystem services from oyster reef restoration. Ecological Engineering, 63, pp.34–44.

Lau, S.C., Thomas, M., Hancock, B. & Russell, B.D., 2020. Restoration potential of Asian oysters on heavily developed coastlines. Restoration Ecology, 28(6), pp.1643–1653.

Mann, R. & Powell, E.N., 2007. Why oyster restoration goals in the Chesapeake Bay are not and probably cannot be achieved. Journal of Shellfish Research, 26, pp.905–917.

Mann, R.L., 2000. Restoring the oyster reef communities in the Chesapeake Bay: a commentary. Journal of Shellfish Research, 19(1), p.335.

Morris, R.L., Bilkovic, D.M., Boswell, M.K., Bushek, D., Cebrian, J., Goff, J. & Swearer, S.E., 2019. The application of oyster reefs in shoreline protection: Are we over‐engineering for an ecosystem engineer? Journal of Applied Ecology, 56(7), pp.1703–1711.

Morton, B. & Wong, P.S., 1975. The Pacific Oyster Industry in Hong Kong (香港的蠔業). Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Hong Kong Branch, 15, pp.139–159.

Nestlerode, J.A., Luckenbach, M.W. & O’Beirn, F.X., 2007. Settlement and survival of the oyster Crassostrea virginica on created oyster reef habitats in Chesapeake Bay. Restoration Ecology, 15(2), pp.273–283.

Narayan, S., Beck, M.W., Reguero, B.G., Losada, I.J., van Wesenbeeck, B., Pontee, N., Sanchirico, J.N., Ingram, J.C., Lange, G.M. & Burks-Copes, K.A., 2016. The effectiveness, costs and coastal protection benefits of natural and nature-based defences. PLoS ONE, 11(5), e0154735.

O’Shaughnessy, K.A., Harding, J.M., Mann, R. & Southworth, M.J., 2019. Oyster reef restoration supports increased nekton biomass and potential commercial fishery value. Restoration Ecology, 27(3), pp.458–470.

Peterson, C.H., Grabowski, J.H. & Powers, S.P., 2003. Estimated enhancement of fish production resulting from restoring oyster reef habitat: quantitative valuation. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 264, pp.249–264.

Rodriguez, A.B., Fodrie, F.J., Ridge, J.T., Lindquist, N.L., Theuerkauf, E.J., Coleman, S.E. & Kenworthy, M.D., 2014. Oyster reefs can outpace sea-level rise. Nature Climate Change, 4(6), pp.493–497.

Rodriguez-Perez, A., James, M., Donnan, D.W., Henry, T.B., Møller, L.F. & Sanderson, W.G., 2019. Conservation and restoration of a keystone species: Understanding the settlement preferences of the European oyster (Ostrea edulis). Marine Pollution Bulletin, 138, pp.312–321.

Rothschild, B.J., Ault, J.S., Goulletquer, P. & Héral, M., 1994. Decline of the Chesapeake Bay oyster population: a century of habitat destruction and overfishing. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 111, pp.29–39.

Zu Ermgassen, P.S.E., Spalding, M.D., Grizzle, R.E. & Brumbaugh, R.D., 2013. Quantifying the loss of a marine ecosystem service: filtration by the eastern oyster in US estuaries. Estuaries and Coasts, 36(1), pp.36–43.

Image Credits

Adobe Stock (n.d.) Oyster reef. Available at: https://assets.zyrosite.com/Yyv98L6j7Qi5voGz/2000x1333-oysterreef-adobestock-A3Q2RKr9G6sX4jnw.jpg

Tang, D. (2025) An abandoned oyster farm that The Nature Conservancy studies to understand the role of oyster reefs as a habitat. Hong Kong Free Press, 16 May. Available at: https://hongkongfp.com/2025/05/16/ngo-urges-stronger-protection-of-hong-kongs-oyster-reefs-as-govt-invites-public-views-on-biodiversity-strategy/

Galveston Bay Foundation (n.d.) Oyster shell recycling bins. Available at: https://galvbay.org/work/habitat-restoration/#oyster-reef

Addison, L. (n.d.) The oyster reef includes three 160-foot-long sills made of shells. Audubon North Carolina. Available at: https://nc.audubon.org/press-release/new-oyster-reef-project-bolsters-bird-habitat-water-quality-cape-fear#1 .

Yeung, P. (2022) Mangroves at Pak Nai. Mongabay, 5 December. Available at: https://news.mongabay.com/2022/12/restoring-hong-kongs-oyster-reefs-one-abandoned-oyster-farm-at-a-time/